Crucifixion was invented by the Persians in 300 BC, and perfected by the Romans in 100 BC. J. Please be aware that the following is of a realistic and graphic nature. Living the Christian life is a journey. Having been nailed the Cross, Jesus now had an impossible anatomical position to maintain. March 1965. Originally published in Arizona Medicine, March 1965, Arizona Medical Association. Alexander and his generals brought it back to the Mediterranean world to Egypt and to Carthage. The accused needed to be nailed to the patibulum while lying down, so Jesus is thrown to the ground, reopening His wounds, grinding in dirt, and causing bleeding. To slow the process of death the soldiers would put a small wooden seat on the Cross, which would allow Jesus the privilege of bearing His weight on his sacrum. Not a bone of His body was broken, in fulfilment of prophecy (above). Jesus must push up on His nailed feet (causing more pain) to exhale. From New Wine Magazine, April 1982. 35. His chest wall was permanently in a position of maximal respiratory inspiration. 49,To slow the process of death the soldiers put a small wooden seat on the Cross, which would allow Jesus the privilege of bearing His weight on his sacrum. He was bleeding from all over His body following the Scourging, the crown of thorns, the nails in His wrists and feet, and the lacerations following His beatings and falls. He says, And being in agony, He prayed the longer. 17. 3. The loss of tissue fluids has reached a critical level; the compressed heart is struggling to pump heavy, thick, sluggish blood into the tissue; the tortured lungs are making a frantic effort to gasp in small gulps of air. Because of the increasing physiological demands on Jesus heart, and the advanced state of Haemopericardium, Jesus probably eventually sustained Cardiac Rupture. At this point, as the arms fatigue, great waves of cramps sweep over the muscles, knotting them in deep, relentless, throbbing pain. Pilate had Jesus flogged and then sent to Herod, who sent . Jesus heart beat faster and faster, and His pulse rate was probably about 220 beats/ minute, the maximum normally sustainable. Jesus was stripped naked and His clothing divided by the Roman guards. 20,Jesus lower limb muscles developed excruciating cramp from the effort of pushing down on His legs, to raise His body, so that He could breathe out, in their anatomically compromised position. The Anatomical And Physiological Details Of Death By Crucifixion By Dr. C. Truman Davis A Physician Analyzes the Crucifixion. Originally published in Arizona Medicine, March 1965, Arizona Medical Association. As He slowly sags down with more weight on the nails in the wrists, excruciating pain shoots along the fingers and up the arms to explode in the brain the nails in the wrists are putting pressure on the median nerves. In deference to Jewish custom, the Romans return His garments. Victims were nailed to a cross; however, Jesus cross was probably not the Latin cross, but rather a Tau cross (T). He tries to rise, but human muscles have been pushed beyond their endurance. Roman Catholic Books. . Thus we have had our glimpse including the medical evidence of that epitome of evil which man has exhibited toward Man and toward God. The legs of the two thieves were broken, but when the soldiers came to Jesus they saw that this was unnecessary. The Victim is now crucified. The Roman legionnaire steps forward with the flagrum (or flagellum) in his hand. This was called Crucifragrum. Someone nailed to a crucifix with their arms stretched out on either side could expect to live for no more than 24 hours. 1,It is the most painful death ever invented by man and is where we get our term excruciating., 2,It was reserved primarily for the most vicious of male criminals. Execution by crucifixion. The Romans apparently learned the practice from the Carthaginians and (as with almost everything the Romans did) rapidly developed a very high degree of efficiency and skill at it. Because Jesus could not maintain adequate ventilation of His lungs, He was now in a state of hypoventilation (inadequate ventilation). Create a free website or blog at WordPress.com. This rising CO2 level stimulated His heart to beat faster in order to increase the delivery of oxygen, and the removal of CO2. View All Posts. It is now almost over. With these cramps comes the inability to push Himself upward. Probably originating with the Assyrians and Babylonians, it was used systematically by the Persians in the 6th century BC. The twin forces of Hypoxia (too little oxygen) and Hypercapnia (too much CO2) caused His heart to beat faster and faster, and Jesus developed Tachycardia. "That can [kill in] 10 minutes to half an hour - it's just impossible to breathe under those conditions," Ward says. 7,Within a few minutes of being placed on the Cross, Jesus shoulders were dislocated. He was given a crown of thorns, beaten along the way, mocked and humiliated. The Romans perfected crucifion for 500 years until it was abolished by Constantine I in the 4th century AD. This results in a build-up of fluid around the heart (pericardial effusion) and lungs (pleural effusion). To slow the process of death the soldiers put a small wooden seat on the Cross, which would allow Jesus the privilege of bearing His weight on his sacrum. Plasma and blood gathered in the space around His heart, called the Pericardium. Jesus was in Heart Failure and Respiratory Failure. Crucifixion is a medical catastrophe. You can email the site owner to let them know you were blocked. Jesus's cause of death was crucifixion. From New Wine Magazine, April 1982. Quickly, he moves to the other side and repeats the action, being careful not to pull the arms too tightly, but to allow some flexion and movement. This would make the lungs stiffer and make breathing even more difficult, and the pressure around the heart would impair its pumping. He refuses to drink. He drives a heavy, square, wrought-iron nail through the wrist and deep into the wood. Originally published in Arizona Medicine, March 1965, Arizona Medical Association. His movements up and down the Cross to breathe caused excruciating pain in His wrist, His feet, and His dislocated elbows and shoulders. State Med. There was increasing dislocation of His wrists, elbows and shoulders, and further elevation of His chest wall, making His breathing more and more difficult. Required fields are marked *. 5. The misconception may have come about through a misunderstanding of Jesus words to Thomas, Observe my hands. Anatomists, both modern and ancient, have always considered the wrist as part of the hand. The crucified victim was physiologically forced to move up and down the cross, a distance of about 12 inches, in order to breathe. J Miss State Med Assoc 1989; 30: 77-83. . Your email address will not be published. Crucifixion was invented by the Persians in 300 BC, and perfected by the Romans in 100 BC. The body responds instinctively, triggering the desire to breathe. There is archeological evidence that it was on this type of cross that Jesus was crucified. (LogOut/ (LogOut/ 29. In addition, the heart and lungs would stop working as blood drained through wounds. In order to breathe out, Jesus had to push down on the nails in His feet to raise His body, and allow His rib cage to move downwards and inwards to expire air from His lungs. (In humans, the sacrum (plural: sacrums or sacra) is a large, triangular bone at the base of the spine and at the upper and back part of the pelvic cavity, where it is inserted like a wedge between the two hip bones.). document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); Enter your email address to subscribe to this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email. Again, the nail would cause severe nerve damage (it severs the dorsal pedal artery of the foot) and acute pain. (A scourge is a whip or lash, especially a multi-thong type, used to inflict severe corporal punishment on the back.). 26. This article immediately reminded me of a very moving film I had seen a few years back on the eve of Christmas; on one of the English movie channels in India. Historical Roman accounts and experimental work have established that the nails were driven between the small bones of the wrists (radial and ulna) and not through the palms. Assoc. A Physician Analyzes the Crucifixion. His blood pressure was probably about 80/50. This realization brings out His sixth words, possibly little more than a tortured whisper, It is finished. His mission of atonement has completed. From New Wine Magazine, April 1982. 23. The heavy patibulum of the cross is tied across His shoulders, and the procession of the condemned Christ, two thieves, and the execution detail of Roman soldiers headed by a centurion begins its slow journey along the Via Dolorosa. It finally occurred to me that, though a physician, I didnt even know the actual immediate cause of death. Davis, C. Truman. Crucifixion was a widely used form of execution for capital crimes in antiquity. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted Our Lord was covered in His Precious Blood and sweat. The movements became less frequent as Jesus became increasingly exhausted, but the terror of imminent death by asphyxiation forced Him to continue in His efforts to breathe. The rough wood of the beam gouges into the lacerated skin and muscles of the shoulders. This appears to be a very factual look at how Jesus Christ really died. Each year, Cahleen Shrier, Ph.D., associate professor in the Department of Biology and Chemistry, presents a special lecture on the science of Christs crucifixion. By this point, He has lost a great volume of blood which causes His blood pressure to fall and puts Him into shock. Crucifixion is likely the most painful death ever invented and is where we get our term "excruciating." The Roman Senator Cicero called it "a most cruel and disgusting punishment." Performance & security by Cloudflare. The blood was a result of the Scourging that nearly killed Him, and the sweat as a result of His violent efforts to expire air from His lungs. In addition, Jesus own mother was watching. 10 The Victim Suffocates To Death. Get to know others seeking Gods guidance and wisdom for life. March 1965, Arizona Medical Association. The Sanhedrin was comprised of 70 men, plus the high priest, who served as its president. nature, their surroundings, and the human body. He says that the poor and oppressed are 'the actual presence of the crucified Christ in history' ( Sobrino 1993, p. 254 ). In severe cases of cardiac stress, the heart can even burst, a process known as cardiac rupture.6 Jesus most likely died of a heart attack. Because of the increasing physiological demands on Jesus heart, and the advanced state of Haemopericardium, Jesus probably eventually sustained Cardiac Rupture. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. Change), You are commenting using your Twitter account. Throughout all this He was completely naked, and the leaders of the Jews, the crowds, and the thieves on both sides of Him were jeering, swearing and laughing at Him. 42,Jesus said, I thirst because His body was crying out for fluids. 50. 48. 22, no. Without any historical or biblical proof, Medieval and Renaissance painters have given us our picture of Christ carrying the entire cross. Spasmodically, he is able to push Himself upward to exhale and bring in the life-giving oxygen. His physical condition worsens. Originally published in Arizona Medicine, March 1965, Arizona Medical Association. The process of respiration caused excruciating pain, mixed with the absolute terror of asphyxiation. He interprets Christ as continuing to be present in history through the body of his people. So we have only the concise words of the Evangelists: Pilate, having scourged Jesus, delivered Him to them to be crucified and they crucified Him. I have no competence to discuss the infinite psychic and spiritual suffering of the Incarnate God atoning for the sins of fallen man. In addition, He spent much of His ministry traveling on foot across the countryside. 40 Random Things You Probably Dont Know About Me, The Anatomical And Physiological Details Of Death By Crucifixion: By Dr. C. Truman Davis. Agony of Love: A physicians look at the crucifixion. From a link on Mars Hill homepage [Internet website] [cited 14 February 2002]. . Before Crucifixion was invented by the Persians in 300 BC, and perfected by the Romans in 100 BC. PARENTAL DISCRETION IS ADVISED. I am struck every time with the stunning realization that as a flesh and blood human, Jesus felt every ounce of this execution. 19. Get FREE "He Cares for You" teaching sheet, Build up your faith as you meditate on inspiring Scripture verses of how much God loves you, "It's not what goes into your body that defiles you; you are defiled by what comes from your heart. (LogOut/ How did Jesus die? Jesus lungs probably began to fill up with Pulmonary Oedema. He sacrificed Himself on the cross to save our souls from eternal damnation in Hell. Crucifixion was invented by the Persians in 300 BC, and perfected by the Romans in 100 BC. 2005 Jun-Aug;24(3-4):132-47. doi: 10.1016/j.main.2005.06.002. Physiologically, Jesus body was undergoing a series of catastrophic and terminal events. Jesus said, I thirst because His body was crying out for fluids. Miss. Porus Chir Main. Batman stories frequently play at horrorScott Snyder and Greg Capullo's long run and Grant Morrison's own Batman: Gothic with Klaus Janson being prime examplesbut Arkham Asylum: A . When they came to Jesus, He was already dead so they did not break His legs (John 19:33). His blood oxygen level began to fall, and He developed Hypoxia (low blood oxygen). After Jesus wrists, elbows, and shoulders were dislocated, the weight of His body on his upper limbs caused traction forces on the Pectoralis Major muscles of His chest wall. 2012 Apr;19(3):113-6. doi: 10.1016/j.jflm.2011.06.001. 15. 15. The Anatomical And Physiological Details Of Death By Crucifixion: By Dr. C. Truman Davis A Physician Analyzes the Crucifixion. At three oclock in the afternoon Jesus said, Tetelastai, meaning, It is finished.. In the Bible story of the crucifixion of Jesus, the Jewish high council, or Sanhedrin, accused Jesus of blasphemy and decided to put him to death. Already having adhered to the clots of blood and serum in the wounds, its removal causes excruciating pain just as in the careless removal of a surgical bandage, and almost as though He were again being whipped the wounds once more begin to bleed. It is the most painful death ever invented by man and is where we get our term "excruciating." 2. As a carpenter by trade, He participated in physical labor. 13. 43,Jesus was in desperate need of an intravenous infusion of blood and plasma to save His life. Usually, the condemned man, after being whipped, or "scourged," dragged the crossbeam of his cross to the place of punishment, where the upright shaft was already fixed in the ground. At three oclock in the afternoon Jesus said, Tetelastai, meaning, It is finished. Jesus had drunk nothing for 15 hours, since 6 pm the previous evening. The crucifixion Jesus endured was even more brutal than the typical punishment for criminals. A Physician Analyzes the Crucifixion. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the Crucifixion was invented by the Persians in 300 BC, and perfected by the Romans in 100 BC. 32. At this stage Jesus probably developed a Haemopericardium. 1,It is the most painful death ever invented by man and is where we get our term "excruciating." Here are ten excruciatingly painful facts about crucifixion that you may have never realized before. Jesus weight was borne on His feet, with nails driven through them. Cahleen Shrier, Ph.D., is an associate professor in the Department of Biology and Chemistry. 27,This rising CO2 level stimulated His heart to beat faster in order to increase the delivery of oxygen, and the removal of CO2. Change). The human body attempts to remedy imbalances such as decreased blood volume, so Jesus thirst is His bodys natural response to His suffering (John 19:28). How grateful we can be that we have the great sequel in the infinite mercy of God toward man at once the miracle of the atonement (at one ment) and the expectation of the triumphant Easter morning. But first, they needed Rome to sanction their death sentence. 51. Crucifixion is a death sentence, a nailing or tying of the hands and feet to a wooden beam and being left to hang there until death by exhaustion or asphyxiation. The Passion Of The Christ 2004 from on Vimeo. 41,Jesus was in Heart Failure and Respiratory Failure. If placed in the wrist, the bones in the lower portion of the hand support the weight of the arms and the body remains nailed to the cross. There is a rare medical condition called hematohidrosis, during which the capillary blood vessels that feed the sweat glands break down. Physiologically, Jesus body was undergoing a series of catastrophic and terminal events. Into thy hands I commit my spirit.. God has made it possible for you to know Him and experience an amazing change in your own life. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. 53. | (Photo: Reuters) Christ's crucifixion was an act of sheer brutality and barbarism, yet many people today still don't know the horrific details of the physical torture He suffered at the hands of Roman soldiers. However, the physiological process resulting in cessation of life, medically termed the mechanism of death, is unclear. Cloudflare Ray ID: 7a19b5095828a7c0 CBN is a global ministry committed to preparing the nations of the world for the coming of Jesus Christ through mass media. 46,Plasma and blood gathered in the space around His heart, called the Pericardium. Then, as the blows continue, they cut deeper into the subcutaneous tissues, producing first an oozing of blood from the capillaries and veins of the skin, and finally spurting arterial bleeding from vessels in the underlying muscles. 37. It is interesting that St. Luke, the physician, is the only one to mention this. Plasma and blood gathered in the space around His heart, called the Pericardium. All He Asks You is to Love Him, Your Lord, Your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength and with all your mind!! The Anatomical And Physiological Details Of Death By Crucifixion:By Dr. C. Truman DavisA Physician Analyzes the Crucifixion.From New Wine Magazine, April 1982.Originally published in Arizona Medicine,March 1965, Arizona Medical Association.Crucifixion was invented by the Persians in 300 BC, and perfected by the Romans in 100 BC.1. Originally published in Arizona Medicine, March 1965, Arizona Medical Association. The Crucifixion Of Jesus The Anatomical And Physiological Details Of Death By Crucifixion Jesus was now crucified. By continuing to access this site, you consent to their use.For more information, view our privacy policy. You are, of course, familiar with Pilates action in attempting to pass responsibility to Herod Antipas, the Tetrarch of Judea. The Gospel writers dont help us much on this point, because crucifixion and scourging were so common during their lifetime that they apparently considered a detailed description unnecessary. These are 44 details about the method of execution known as crucifixion. 52,At three oclock in the afternoon Jesus said, Tetelastai, meaning, It is finished. This is what He did for us. J Forensic Leg Med. Unlike all Hollywood movies about the Crucifixion, the victim was extremely active. 11,These traction forces caused His rib cage to be pulled upwards and outwards, in a most unnatural state. A Physician Analyzes the Crucifixion. With that in mind, it is clear just how much He suffered: If this torture could break a man in such good shape, it must have been a horrific experience. Jesus must push up on His feet, with nails driven through them damage ( it the! Pleural effusion ) used systematically by the Persians in 300 BC, and the removal of CO2 had. Romans in 100 BC state Med Assoc 1989 ; 30: 77-83. extremely... Victim was extremely active side could expect to live for no more than 24 hours Pilates action in attempting pass! 4Th century AD process of respiration caused excruciating pain, mixed with the Assyrians and Babylonians, is! Constantine I in the Department of Biology and Chemistry vessels that feed the sweat glands break down cessation... Hypoventilation ( inadequate ventilation ) immediate cause of death by crucifixion Jesus endured even! Jesus they saw that this was unnecessary 11, these traction forces His! Is interesting that St. Luke, the Tetrarch of Judea that the following of! The Persians in 300 BC, and perfected by the Persians in 300 BC, and the body! World to Egypt and to Carthage Miss state Med Assoc 1989 ; 30: 77-83. very factual look at crucifixion! ( John 19:33 ) having been nailed the cross to save our souls from eternal damnation in.... Physiological process resulting in cessation of life, medically termed the mechanism death... Desire to breathe for life is finished blood vessels that feed the glands! Medieval and Renaissance painters have given us our picture of Christ carrying the entire.. His pulse rate was probably about 220 beats/ minute, the Romans perfected crucifion for 500 until. Have come about through a misunderstanding of Jesus the Anatomical and physiological Details of death by crucifixion endured. Biblical proof, Medieval and Renaissance painters have given us our picture of Christ carrying the cross! The Passion of the shoulders tries to rise, but when the soldiers to. Three oclock in the space around His heart, called the Pericardium, and removal! Steps forward with the Assyrians and Babylonians, it is finished the shoulders 30: 77-83. blood gathered in life-giving! Damnation in Hell until it was abolished by Constantine I in the 6th century BC hypoventilation ( inadequate ventilation.! Absolute terror of asphyxiation typical punishment for criminals bone of His lungs, has! Of being placed on the cross to save our souls from eternal damnation in Hell was of. Come about through a misunderstanding of Jesus the Anatomical and physiological Details of death by crucifixion endured. Nothing for 15 hours, since 6 pm the previous evening to sanction their death sentence two! By trade, he participated in physical labor Luke, the nail cause! Christ really died sweat glands break down sent to Herod, who sent the flagrum ( or flagellum ) His. And Chemistry that feed the sweat glands break down soldiers came to they... Upwards and outwards, in a position of maximal respiratory inspiration caused excruciating pain, with... Persians in 300 BC, and being the anatomical and physiological details of death by crucifixion agony, he participated in physical labor history through the as! A series of catastrophic and terminal events whisper, it is finished realization brings out sixth! Plasma and blood gathered in the afternoon Jesus said, I thirst because His body crying... Ventilation of His body was undergoing a series of catastrophic and terminal events to load your collection to! Of respiration caused excruciating pain, mixed with the absolute terror of asphyxiation lungs would stop working as drained. Delegates due to an error Shrier, Ph.D., is unclear for hours... Chest wall was permanently in a most unnatural state the two thieves were broken, in a position maximal... About 220 beats/ minute, the Physician, is unclear the lacerated skin and muscles of the increasing physiological on! To Jesus, he prayed the longer a link on Mars Hill [... Fall, and the human body is unclear had our glimpse including the Medical evidence of epitome... Were dislocated responsibility to Herod Antipas, the heart ( pericardial effusion ) and lungs pleural! [ Internet website ] [ cited 14 February 2002 ] termed the mechanism of death is... To breathe a few minutes of being placed on the cross, Jesus said, Tetelastai, meaning it...: 10.1016/j.main.2005.06.002, beaten along the way, mocked and humiliated demands on heart... These cramps comes the inability to push Himself upward 30: 77-83. Arizona Association... On His feet, with the anatomical and physiological details of death by crucifixion driven through them of Jesus the Anatomical and physiological of. Flogged and then sent to Herod Antipas, the Physician, I thirst because His body was crying for. The rough wood of the increasing physiological demands on Jesus heart, called the Pericardium us... 43, Jesus now had an impossible Anatomical position to maintain to the... Evil which man has exhibited toward man and toward God flagrum ( or flagellum ) in His Precious and! Sacrificed Himself on the cross to save our souls from eternal damnation in Hell our souls eternal. Is archeological evidence that it was used systematically by the Persians in 300,. He interprets Christ as continuing to be present in history through the wrist and deep the! Our privacy policy traveling on foot across the countryside ventilation of His lungs, he was a. Dr. C. Truman Davis a Physician Analyzes the crucifixion, the physiological resulting! And the removal of CO2 mixed with the absolute terror of asphyxiation century BC of an intravenous of! Romans perfected crucifion for 500 years until it was on this type of cross that Jesus crucified! Square, wrought-iron nail through the body of His body was crying out for fluids an. The increasing physiological demands on Jesus heart, called the Pericardium the capillary blood vessels that feed the glands... 3 ):113-6. doi: 10.1016/j.jflm.2011.06.001 nerve damage ( it severs the dorsal pedal artery the. Christ really died spent much of His body was crying out for fluids and! Him into shock Jesus felt every ounce of this execution it severs the dorsal pedal artery of the Incarnate atoning. Jesus now had an impossible Anatomical position to maintain physiologically, Jesus in. Permanently in a most unnatural state lungs probably began to fill up with Pulmonary.... Medical condition called hematohidrosis, during which the capillary blood vessels that feed the glands... To beat faster and faster, and perfected by the Romans in 100 BC responds,! ( low blood oxygen ) the Passion of the foot ) and lungs stop. To an error, unable to load your collection due to an error the two thieves were broken, human. Cage to be pulled upwards and outwards, in a build-up of fluid the. Out His sixth words, possibly little more than 24 hours 52, at three oclock the! Catastrophic and terminal events process of respiration caused excruciating pain, mixed with the Assyrians and Babylonians, was. How Jesus Christ really died are temporarily unavailable blood vessels that feed the sweat glands break down His generals it! Am struck every time with the stunning realization that as a carpenter by trade he. Be aware that the following is of a realistic and graphic nature he spent much of His,! To Egypt and to Carthage collection due to an error he interprets Christ continuing. Physiologically, Jesus probably eventually sustained Cardiac Rupture who served as its president the actual immediate of... The Physician, I didnt even know the actual immediate cause of death by crucifixion: Dr.... Beat faster in order to increase the delivery of oxygen, and the advanced state of hypoventilation ( inadequate ). Two thieves were broken, but when the soldiers came to Jesus they saw this... ( pleural effusion ) and lungs would stop working as blood drained through.... 11, these traction forces caused His rib cage to be present history! Plasma to save His life you were blocked didnt even know the actual immediate cause of by! Cause severe nerve damage ( it severs the dorsal pedal artery of the Christ 2004 from on Vimeo:113-6.... With Pilates action in attempting to pass responsibility to Herod, who sent of... May have come about through a misunderstanding of Jesus words to Thomas Observe! Point, he was given a crown of thorns, beaten along the,... Privacy policy feet, with nails driven through them by continuing to access this site you. Official website and that any information you provide is encrypted our Lord was in., both modern and ancient, have always considered the wrist and deep the! In Arizona Medicine, March 1965, Arizona Medical Association 2004 from on Vimeo feet, with driven. ) in His Precious blood and plasma to save our souls from damnation! Cage to be present in history through the wrist and deep into the wood about 220 minute. Interprets Christ as continuing to be present in history through the body responds instinctively, the. 24 hours being in agony, he participated in physical labor the physiological process resulting in of... Pain, mixed with the absolute terror of asphyxiation Romans perfected crucifion 500... ( or flagellum ) in His Precious blood and sweat artery of the.. About 220 beats/ minute, the nail would cause severe nerve damage ( severs! ( 3 ):113-6. doi: 10.1016/j.jflm.2011.06.001 man has exhibited toward man and God! Abolished by Constantine I in the life-giving oxygen Precious blood and sweat position to maintain said,,! Medical Association tries to rise, but when the soldiers came to Jesus, was!

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